1 Introduction: Teaching with radical periodicals and primary sources

The mid-twentieth century bore witness to a wave of anti-imperialist and independence struggles; some involved protracted and bloody conflicts, while others were more-or-less peaceable. But to view this as a period marked only by national liberation struggles is to miss the extent to which networks of anti-imperial solidarity and knowledge proliferated at the same time. The Afro-Asian Conference at Bandung in 1955 is often taken as the first in a series of events that ‘brought the Third World into self-conscious being’ by making connections between the material conditions in disparate, formerly colonised, sites (Gilmore, 2022[2008], p. 414-15). The initiatives that elaborated on this self-conscious Third Worldism include the Afro-Asian Peoples’ Solidarity Organisation (AAPSO) conference in 1957, held in Cairo; the meetings of states in the Non-Aligned Movement, beginning in Belgrade in 1961; and of course the Tricontinental Conference hosted by OSPAAAL, the Organisation of Solidarity with the People of Asia, Africa and Latin America,[1] based in Havana (see chapters by Lavanya Nott, and by Fernando Camacho Padilla and Natália Schmiedecke, in this volume). The passing in 1974 of a UN resolution calling for a New International Economic Order, imagined as a way to achieve redress for some of the inequalities inherited from the colonial global economic order, is generally seen as a high-water mark of this ‘Bandungian’, Third Worldist, anti-imperialist internationalism.

Yet the New International Economic Order never quite came to pass, not least because of the Third World Debt Crisis that unfolded in the early 1980s, forcing many formerly colonised states to forego sovereignty over their own development in exchange for policy-conditional bailouts from the International Monetary Fund and World Bank (see Sharma, 2013). The conditionalities that were attached to these ‘Structural Adjustment’ loans resulted in what Thandika Mkandawire (1999) termed ‘choiceless democracies’. One way or another, countries of the Third World/Global South[2] would get the economic policy and development agenda that the Bretton Woods Institutions dictated to them. The concerted effort that countries and corporations based in the Global North made to undermine and lobby against the New International Economic Order further weakened the Bandungian agenda (Bair, 2009), as did the rise of pro-capitalist or pro-‘neoliberal’ elites across the Global South (Prashad, 2014). The unravelling of an anti-imperialist form of internationalist solidarity across the Global South has been read by David Scott (2004) as a form of ‘tragedy’. Critiques of imperialism and calls for national liberation, he argues, appear tragically out of step with a world in which post-colonial sovereignty is already a fragmented achievement, and no longer an emancipatory promise able to point towards revolutionary political projects (see Gilbert, 2018).

Likewise, scholars of the New International Economic Order have suggested that the contemporary enthusiasm for a ‘new’ NIEO might involve exaggerating the possibilities of the past (Venzke 2018), or embracing a ‘figment of a now all but lost political imaginary’ (Gilman, 2015, p. 1). But it would be wrong to declare ‘closure on the political possibilities of one generation…without a recognition of the potential for a new effervescence in its successor’ (Meeks, 2016, p. 216). Living in a present where the radical emancipatory visions of anti-imperialist liberation leaders have not yet been realised, we would do well to ‘refuse to jettison the moment of promise’ that animated mid-twentieth century anti-imperialist visions, and ‘refuse to forget the reasons why that vision was unacceptable to the First World’ (Wenzel, 2006, p. 23). In searching for the contours of that radical emancipatory vision, and the traces of that moment of promise, we can turn to radical periodicals: the magazines, journals and pamphlets that formed a ‘Global South infrastructure for pedagogy and political education’, for ‘movement thought’ and for visual experimentation (Kazmi, 2024, p. 183).

This volume is the outcome of a set of workshops organised by the School of Global Studies (Paul Gilbert) and the Collection Development team in the Library (Danny Millum) at the University of Sussex, which were funded by an internal Education Innovation Fund project entitled ‘Tricontinental, Mujeres, and the worlds they invite us to imagine’ (2023-24). The workshops were designed with several aims in mind. Firstly, they sought to encourage students to engage with primary source material directly, and build up student capacities to conduct research in archives and special collections. The second aim of these workshops was to explicitly engage students not just with any resources, but specifically with radical periodicals that were housed in the British Library for Development Studies (BLDS) Legacy Collection at the University of Sussex. The final aim was to use some of our project funds to digitise the Tricontinental runs held in the BLDS Legacy Collection.

We wanted to engage students with primary sources because, as Danny Millum outlines in his chapter in this volume, working with such collections demands, affords and provokes a kind of research imagination that is not available when working with secondary or digital sources. There is something about the ‘textured and intimate experience of perusing the pages’ that can shift student perceptions (Kazmi, 2024, p. 191), as Alexandros Ioannides discusses in his contribution to this volume. This first aim of the project was informed by scholarship that shows how students engaged in archival or special collections research report increased confidence and greater information literacy after carrying out experiential learning or internship projects alongside staff. (Hubbard and Lotts, 2013; McCarl, 2021; Victor et al., 2013). Workshops were thus organised with historians, social scientists, librarians, and archivists from the University of Sussex and The Keep.

In terms of engaging students with the BLDS Legacy Collection; this is an unparalleled resource for studying the history of development studies and practice. The Collection contains a quarter of a million items pertaining to the history of development as it unfolded over the second half of the twentieth century; a period that saw ‘development’ being administered within still-colonised territories, as well as in newly-independent states. It is built around a selection of items collected by the staff at the Institute of Development Studies from its founding in 1966 up until the dissolution of its library in 2017 (see the chapters by Alice Corble and by Bethany Collard in this volume). We wanted our students to engage with this history of development, not least because development tends to be an excessively ‘presentist’ discipline.

As Erica Nelson notes in her foreword to this volume, IDS was founded in the same year that the Tricontinental conference took place and the Tricontinental Bulletin began to be published. In an unpublished 1991 memo on the ‘Pre-History of IDS’ written by Hans Singer and held in the Singer Papers at The Keep, hand-written comments by Anthony Low, then head of the School of African and Asian Studies at Sussex,[3] question Singer’s focus on economists like Dudley Seers in shaping IDS. Low argues, referring to a chapter he had written (Low, 1986), that IDS was shaped more by the Overseas Development minister at the time, Andrew Cohen. Cohen had been colonial Governor of Uganda, and wanted to model IDS on the Community Development College established during his governorship of Uganda, and the ‘Devonshire Courses’ at Oxbridge that colonial administrators had been required to study.

Being shaped at its foundation by a colonial officer did not determine the shape of development studies at IDS and Sussex however. Singer, for instance, is perhaps best known for his work on what came to be known as the ‘Prebisch-Singer’ thesis (see Toye and Toye, 2003), demonstrating that trade between the industrialised Global North and raw material-exporting Global South was actively impoverishing the South, rather than ‘equalising’ the world through trade. Particularly through the influence of Raúl Prebisch, who disseminated the thesis in parallel throughout Latin America, the Prebisch-Singer thesis came to influence the speeches of Che Guevara. This included his messages to the Tricontinental conference in Havana where he argued for socialist revolution as the pathway to addressing these persistent colonial relations of economic dependency (Brincat and Löwy, 2023). Yet these radical networks of thought, which traversed Latin America, Asia, Africa and the Caribbean – sometimes cutting through IDS and Sussex (Devés, 2014) – get little attention in contemporary development studies or development economics. Nor do we tend to understand development as coterminous with anti-colonial liberation, even though that was what drew numerous anti-imperialist radicals – from ANC exiles to Grenadian socialist revolutionaries – to study at Sussex and IDS in the mid-twentieth century.

The BLDS Legacy Collection contains thousands of documents on everything from land and employment surveys to family planning campaign materials, from typewritten speeches by Robert Mugabe that were given to conservation organisations in Zimbabwe to collections of development studies students’ essays from 1970s Tanzania. Many of these, as Erica Nelson has noted in workshop discussions related to this project, are not available to the communities that produced them or were affected by the development interventions they were related to. There is an ongoing interest in pursuing documentary restitution and reparation by the team involved in this volume and the associated workshops. The holdings of these resources also constitute a shadow decolonial library within the University of Sussex Library. There is a widespread acknowledgement among critical scholars that contemporary publishing infrastructures privilege ideas from the Global North. This is both dictated and manifested by the Euro-American domination of editorial boards, of peer reviewers, and authors (Amarante et al., 2022; Cummings and Hoebink, 2017). Even open access initiatives risk flooding information infrastructures with Northern-dominated voices and perspectives rather than recovering and amplifying Southern scholarship (Knöchelmann, 2021). Yet as Alice Corble, Tim Graves and Danny Millum show in the video below, the BLDS Legacy Collection represents a far greater diversity of publication origin than the Euro-American dominated publications in the library’s standard collection:

We wanted to introduce students to working with primary sources in the BLDS Legacy Collection by engaging them with radical periodicals like Tricontinental and Mujeres. We were inspired to do this in part by the Revolutionary Papers initiative and the work of scholars involved with that project to create ‘toolkits’ for working with anti-imperialist periodicals from the Global South (Marzagora and Ziadah, 2022). The Revolutionary Papers team have highlighted the importance of these anti-imperial publications for revealing collaborations between authors and audience (through letters, responses and reports on events), as well as for the theorizing and strategizing contained in their pages. Crucially, such periodicals present themselves to the world saying ‘not only do we need new political structures — we need to renew our imaginations about what’s politically possible. We need images of inspiration; we need to create new kinds of cultural practices’ (Shamshiri, 2024, pp. 105-06). The powerful visuals in Tricontinental and Mujeres would, we thought, engage students effectively – and they have been subject to voluminous scholarship in their own right (see also chapters by Fernando Camacho Padilla and Natália Schmiedecke, and by Alexandra Lewis, in this volume). We were also interested in the capacity for the periodicals to renew students’ imaginations about what is politically possible. This project took place against a longer history of decline in ‘Bandungian’ movements, and a contemporary resurgence in Global South-led challenges to the international order – first around economic injustice and access to Covid-19 medication (Sklair and Gilbert, 2022), and then around the abject failure of the Global North to hold Israel accountable for crimes against humanity in Gaza. The particular place of Palestinian solidarity in Tricontinental shaped a number of students’ engagements with the materials during this project (see chapters by Alice Corble, by Alexandros Ioannides, and by Iman Makdisi in this volume).

In the end, not many students engaged with Mujeres, the journal of the Cuban Federation of Women, but they did engage with Tricontinental and other radical periodicals, notably Jeune Afrique (see chapters by Bethany Collard and by Tobey Ahamed-Barke in this volume). The digitisation component of the project focused exclusively on Tricontinental, however, for several reasons. Firstly, Sussex has a near-complete run of the Tricontinental Bulletin (over 170 issues). We were able to use funds from this project to digitise these issues, and add them to the existing Freedom Archives collection. It should be noted that this near-complete run does not include duplicates, triplicates, or quadruples where they were published in multiple languages (English, French, Arabic, Spanish). Instead, we have sought to complement the Freedom Archives holdings, where they may hold an issue in Spanish and we may hold the English version. As Fernando Camacho Padilla and Natália Schmiedecke show in their chapter in this volume, preservation of these Tricontinental materials takes on a particular importance where the host organisation, OSPAAAL, no longer exists, and its archives are not well-preserved. This is a particular problem faced by archives and collections in countries where funding is not abundant, and especially where tropical weather conditions create preservation challenges (Levi and Inniss, 2020). Digitisation is of course, not repatriation. In this case, repatriation is troubled by the lack of a continuous OSPAAAL archive – and for many of the holdings we have at Sussex and the BLDS Legacy Collection, originating institutions may no longer exist or have been defunded as a result of the Structural Adjustment Programmes that stripped funding  particularly from African institutions of higher education in the 1980s and 1990s.

This is not an excuse, nor an endpoint. In an earlier workshop convened by the editors of this volume with local writers and archivists, we committed to working towards not only open access digitisation but pursuing restitution, repatriation and reparative approaches to this collection with our institutions. We stand by and reiterate that commitment in the publication of this volume. It is important to note as well, that digitisation can come with its own pitfalls. We have been careful to ensure that the permissions statements accompanying all of the images in this volume do not permit scraping by AI training models for commercial gain. We cannot endorse the proliferation of energy and water-intensive AI products, that seem to be tethered to an industry model that acknowledges only ‘bigger and bigger, more and more’ as the future; a future that by necessity means more concentrated market power and more energy and freshwater use (Luccioni et al. 2024; Luccioni, 2025). It is also not incidental that advocates of energy-intensive, concentrated AI power seem to endorse profoundly regressive, nativist ideologies that could not be further from the radical imaginaries we and the contributors to this volume seek to revitalise (see Gebru and Torres, 2024). The training of Large Language Models (LLMs) on a subset of weblinks used by predominantly US men (Bender et al., 2021) has also resulted in a shocking Eurocentric and Americentric bias when LLMs like ChatGPT and Claude are asked to return information on academic research – assuming they don’t simply make it up! (see Sworna et al., 2024; Urzedo et al., 2024). More than this, LLMs – which are in Emily Bender’s phrasing, nothing but ‘synthetic text extruders’ – seem incapable of offering radical political solutions to contemporary challenges, seeing as all they do is recombine versions of the most probable among combinations of past responses to a given challenge (van der Ven et al., 2024). In a world in which the radical imaginations and emancipatory futures imagined by mid-twentieth century anti-imperial internationalists has not yet come to pass, there is thus an even greater need for students and scholars alike to engage with printed radical periodicals like Tricontinental, and to spend time steeped in physical spacelike the BLDS Legacy Collection, whose items come from a far more diverse set of geographical and social locations than the academic publications indexed by online search engines and LLMs.

Overview of the contributions

The first section of this volume, ‘Situating Tricontinental: Anti-imperialist Internationalism and Radical Periodicals’, opens with Alice Corble’s overview of the place of radical periodicals in information structures shaped by colonial inheritances, including within the University of Sussex Library. This chapter also situates our project within a conjuncture where Sussex was home to one of many Liberation Encampments in solidarity with Gaza, and where Gaza was facing the wholesale destruction of Palestinian universities, libraries and archives. The next chapter by Fernando Camacho Padilla and Natália Schmiedecke focuses in on the history of OSPAAAL in particular, from being inspired by AAPSO in Cairo to its closure in 2019, highlighting its particular importance in ‘supporting the creation of a global revolutionary subjectivity’. They remind us of the fragility of archives of internationalist solidarity and the importance of protecting this material. Subsequently, Mariano Zarowsky introduces another aspect of informational infrastructures: the publishing houses which enabled what he terms, after Adriana Petra, a ‘paper international’ in the twentieth-century. Books – like radical periodicals – are social practices that connects authors and readers, not only through the ‘information’ they contain, but the ‘paratextual’ markings: from visual choices, to editorial comments and framings of books within certain series or time periods. The engagement with paratext has been particularly important for a number of the student contributions to this volume. Finally, Lavanya Nott reviews AAPSO, a source of inspiration for OSPAAAL, and its forgotten periodicals that document an oft-overlooked persistence of anti-colonial internationalism into the 1990s. Nott’s chapter also begins to reflect on the experiences of engaging with physical archives during the course of research.

The next section, ‘Working with Primary Sources: Archives, Special Collections and Digitisations’, provides students and teachers with an overview into the practicalities and politics of managing physical and digitised radical periodicals. First, Bethany Collard explains the importance of ‘non-official serials’ (which include radical periodicals like Tricontinental and Jeune Afrique) that provide perspectives on development and internationalism ‘from below’, in contradistinction to formal development publications and state documentation. Danny Millum then emphasises the power of leafing through the pages of radical periodicals, and doing so amongst the stacks of a collection. Not only does physical engagement with text allow you to ask questions such as: what happened when the Tricontinental suddenly switched from being printed on gossamer airmail paper, to thick colour-printed paper? But it also gives you an opportunity to turn around and grab other revolutionary papers and radical periodicals that have been gathered together in the BLDS’ non-official serial collections. Millum’s paper provides a set of prompts for students engaging with these materials to use in order to follow out the threads of inquiry that periodicals offer up. Next, Karen Smith highlights the practical elements of digitisation – a process that is as political as it is technical, requiring the gaining of permissions and the careful management of digitised records to ensure they are accessible, public, but not available for commercial re-use. Smith explains the digitisation and Optical Character Recognition scanning that the Tricontinental volumes were subjected to, and in the next chapter Jonathan Blaney provides a step-by-step guide for using ‘grep’ and ‘regex’ functions to search through vast quantities of scanned data simultaneously. Although useful for students engaging with large corpuses of scanned materials – albeit in a different mode to the pathos-laden physical engagement Millum outlines – the tutorial and worked examples that Blaney’s chapter provide also offer the chance for students to gain data literacy skills that have numerous other applications, for example in data journalism or FOI activism. In the final chapter from this section, Marty Steer extends this work, explaining how to use a local, non-cloud based Large Language Model to conduct ‘Retrieval Augmented Generation’ (RAG) on a closed set of digitised radical periodicals on your own computer. This allows for a move away from excessive energy consumption (Luccioni, 2025), and provides opportunities to check the precise sources that the RAG process brings up – addressing some of the problems with open LLMs that draw on Global North-centric materials and produce synthetic text with no capacity to understand the ‘source’ material.

The final section collects contributions from students who participated in our workshops – and some who did not – applying approaches drawn from their respective backgrounds in philosophy, history, and psychology. The first video submission by Alexandros Ioannides describes a search for records of solidarity with Palestine in Tricontinental, the importance of the feel and surroundings of the collection, and the ability to ‘let the project reveal itself’ by leafing through periodicals. Jay Lynch then looks for lessons for contemporary struggles in the language used by Tricontinental to describe allies and enemies, as does James Watts in their chapter on Carlos Marighella’s Minimanual of the Urban Guerrilla, reading this not as theory but a survival guide for those organising against odds and institutions stacked against them across the globe today. Alexandra Lewis reflects on the power of using primary sources such as Tricontinental against the background of a British historical education that ‘has a tendency to overlook both global histories and the use of visual sources’. Lewis ‘would encourage any history student that has experienced a narrowed, Eurocentric historical education to engage thoroughly with the Tricontinental archives’.

Tobey Ahamed-Barke similarly emphasises the importance of history students engaging with contemporaneous accounts, and experiencing the ‘dramatic irony’ of reading articles by authors who could not predict the momentous changes that we now know were about to befall them. Finally, Iman Makdisi reads the parallels between contemporary experiences of bombardment in southern Lebanon with those written about in Tricontinental in 1978-80, alongside articles in Tricontinental that drew on Frantz Fanon’s work. Doing so, Makdisi notes, ‘gave me a clearer understanding of what my parents, grandparents, and great grandparents experienced, while also revealing how little has changed since then.’ It is in this experience of our current conjuncture that we must recall we have still not realised the emancipatory visions that animated writers and readers of Tricontinental. However, as Meeks (2016) insists, there is much to learn from the failures of past generations, but there is also much in these collections to spark the imagination, to renew our imaginations of what is possible, and foster new political and cultural practices. It is with this in mind – as much as with practical guidance for students and teachers wanting to engage with collections and digitisation in their classrooms – that we offer this volume.

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About the author

name: Dr Paul Gilbert

institution: University of Sussex

Paul Gilbert is Reader in Development, Justice & Inequality at the University of Sussex. His research has focused on the political ecology and international law dimensions of extractive industry developments; entanglements of public and private finance in development and social policy; the place of colonialism in researching and teaching about inequality and the global economy; and the relationship between independence/liberation movements and intellectual history in development studies.  He teaches on modules related to these research interests, on climate justice; political ecology; critical approaches to development economics; and education, liberation & justice.